Early attempts at predicting weather were often related to prophecy and divining, and were sometimes based on astrological ideas. Ancient Egyptians had rain-making rituals as early as around 3500 BC. Ancient Indian Upanishads contain mentions of clouds and seasons, and the Brihatsamhita, written around 500 AD by Varāhamihira, provides evidence of weather observation. The ancient Greeks were the first to make theories about the weather, though lacking instruments, inquiry was largely qualitative.
Aristotle is considered the founder of meteorology. His Meteorology described what is now known as the hydrologic cycle. After Aristotle, progress stalled for a long time, with Theophrastus compiling a book on weather forecasting, The Book of Signs, which remained influential for nearly 2,000 years. In the 17th century, René Descartes challenged Aristotelian theories, emphasizing scientific methods and introducing the Cartesian coordinate system to meteorology. The 18th century saw the development of accurate measurement tools like the barometer and thermometer, and the founding of the first meteorological society, the Societas Meteorologica Palatina in 1780. In the 19th century, telegraph-based weather observation networks were formed, and in the 20th century, numerical weather prediction (NWP), coupled with advanced satellite and radar technology, introduced sophisticated forecasting models.
In 1904, Vilhelm Bjerknes argued that weather forecasting should be possible from calculations based upon natural laws. Lewis Fry Richardson published "Weather Prediction By Numerical Process" in 1922, describing a numerical calculation scheme, though the sheer number of calculations required was too large to complete without electronic computers. The chaotic nature of the atmosphere was first observed and mathematically described by Edward Lorenz in the 1960s. Today, meteorology is highly accurate and driven by big data and supercomputing, adopting innovations like machine learning and ensemble forecasting.
Meteorologists study meteorological phenomena driven by solar radiation, Earth's rotation, and ocean currents. These include everyday weather like clouds, precipitation, and wind patterns, as well as severe weather events such as tropical cyclones and severe winter storms. Measurements of temperature, pressure, and humidity are used to forecast weather at local, regional, and global scales. Meteorologists collect data using thermometers, barometers, weather vanes, weather satellites, balloons, reconnaissance aircraft, buoys, and radars. The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) ensures international standardization of meteorological research.
Meteorologists held about 10,000 jobs in the United States in 2018, working in government agencies, private consulting, and education. While weather forecasts and warnings are the best-known products of meteorologists, weather presenters on radio and television are not necessarily professionally trained meteorologists. The study of the atmosphere can be divided into distinct areas based on spatial scales, including microscale, mesoscale, synoptic scale, and global scale meteorology. The study of the air layer directly above Earth's surface is known as boundary layer meteorology.
Meteorology has many applications, including aviation, agriculture, and renewable energy. The field also branches into specialized areas such as hydrometeorology, nuclear meteorology, and military meteorology. The study of the atmosphere continues to evolve with advancements in technology and a growing understanding of its complex processes.
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